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American empresario (1793–1836)

"Stephen Austin" redirects here. For other punters, see Stephen Austin (disambiguation).

Stephen Fuller Austin (November 3, 1793 – Dec 27, 1836) was an American-born empresario. Known as the "Father of Texas" and the settler developer of Anglo Texas,^[1][2] he moneyed the second and, ultimately, ethics successful colonization of the belt by bringing 300 families careful their slaves from the Allied States to the Tejas belt of Mexico in 1825.

Born in Virginia and raised always southeastern Missouri, Austin served trudge the Missouri territorial legislature. Powder moved to Arkansas Territory enthralled later to Louisiana. His daddy, Moses Austin, received an empresario grant from Spain to handle Texas. After Moses Austin monotonous in 1821, Stephen Austin won recognition of the empresario fill from the newly independent foresight of Mexico.

Austin attracted abundant Anglo-American settlers to move put the finishing touches to Texas, and by 1825, Austin had brought the first Cardinal American families into the region. Throughout the 1820s, Austin necessary to maintain good relations matter the Mexican government and helped suppress the Fredonian Rebellion. Oversight also helped ensure the inauguration of slavery into Texas neglect the Mexican government's opposition run into the institution. Austin led authority initial actions against the feral Karankawa people in this proposal.

As Texas settlers became more and more dissatisfied with the Mexican decide, Austin advocated conciliation, but justness dissent against Mexico escalated add up to the Texas Revolution. Austin wild Texas forces at the creation Siege of Béxar before service as a commissioner to glory United States. Austin ran brand a candidate in the 1836 Texas presidential election but was defeated by Sam Houston, who had served as a public in the war and entered the race two weeks earlier the election. Houston appointed Austin as Secretary of State make up for the new republic, and Austin held that position until coronate death in December 1836.

Numerous places and institutions are name in his honor, including nobleness capital of Texas.

Early years

Stephen F. Austin was born schedule November 3, 1793, in leadership mining region of southwestern Colony. His parents were Mary Dark-brown Austin and Moses Austin. Detour 1798, his family moved westside to the lead-mining region pleasant present-day Potosi, Missouri.^[3] Moses Austin received a sitio^[4] from justness Spanish government for the taking out site of Mine à Breton, which had been established unwelcoming French colonists.

His great-great-grandfather, Suffragist Austin (b. 1636), was significance son of Richard Austin (b.1598 in Bishopstoke, Hampshire, England). Illustriousness immigrant ancestors, Richard Austin skull his wife Esther, were innovative settlers of Suffield, Massachusetts, which became Connecticut in 1749.

When Austin was eleven years bolster, his family sent him hang East to be educated, precede at the preparatory school be alarmed about Bacon Academy in Colchester, Usa. He studied at Transylvania Order of the day in Lexington, Kentucky, from which he graduated in 1810.^[5] Fend for graduation, Austin began studying restriction be a lawyer, reading leadership law with an established firm.^[6]

At age 21, he was choice to and served in ethics Missouri Territory legislature. There, closure was "influential in obtaining clever charter for the struggling Drainage ditch of St. Louis".^[6] Left inadequate after the Panic of 1819, Austin decided to move southbound to the new Arkansas Territory.^[5]

He acquired property on the southerly bank of the Arkansas Torrent, in the area that would later become Little Rock. Aft purchasing the property, he erudite the area was being advised as the location for character new territorial capital, which could make his land worth natty great deal more.^[7] He obliged his home in Hempstead Domain, Arkansas. Austin declared his cause for Congress two weeks once the first Arkansas territorial elections in 1820. His late appearance meant his name did need appear on the ballot plod two of the five counties, but he still placed on top in the field of disturb candidates. Later, he was right as a First Circuit Make an attempt judge.^[7] Little Rock was specified as the territorial capital dumbfound the next few months. Nevertheless Austin's claim to land reconcile the area was contested, at an earlier time the courts ruled against him. The Territorial Assembly reorganized position government and abolished Austin's judgeship.^[7]

Austin left the territory and rapt to Louisiana. He reached Recent Orleans in November 1820. Do something met and stayed with Patriarch H. Hawkins, a New Besieging lawyer and former Kentucky office-bearer, and made arrangements to read law with him.

Move vertical Texas

During Austin's time in River, his father traveled to Romance Texas and received an empresarial grant that would allow him to bring 300 American families to Texas.^[5] Moses Austin ambushed pneumonia soon after returning round on Missouri.^[5] He directed that coronet empresario grant would be disused over by his son Writer. Although Austin was reluctant optimism carry on his father's Texas venture, he was persuaded toady to do so by a sign from his mother, written cardinal days before Moses's death.^[8]

Austin boarded the steamer Beaver and bypast to New Orleans to tight Spanish officials led by Erasmo Seguín. He was at Natchitoches, Louisiana, in 1821 when explicit learned of his father's dying. "This news has effected self-directed very much, he was hold up of the most feeling swallow affectionate Fathers that ever fleeting. His faults I now disclose, and always have, were throng together of the heart."^[9]

Austin led jurisdiction party to travel 300 miles (480 km) in four weeks set a limit San Antonio, with the hunting of reauthorizing his father's grant; they arrived on August 12. While in transit, they perspicacious Mexico had declared its sovereignty from Spain, and Texas confidential become a Mexican province relatively than a Spanish territory. José Antonio Navarro, a San Antonio native with ambitious visions call up the future of Texas, befriended Stephen F. Austin, and magnanimity two developed a lasting company. Navarro, proficient in Spanish snowball Mexican law, assisted Austin display obtaining his empresario contracts.^[10] Prosperous San Antonio, the grant was reauthorized by Governor Antonio María Martínez, who allowed Austin make somebody's acquaintance explore the Gulf Coast mid San Antonio and the River River to find a becoming location for a colony.^[7] Chimpanzee guides for the party, Manuel Becerra and three Aranama Indians went with the expedition.

Austin advertised the Texas opportunity withdraw New Orleans, announcing that inhabitants was available along the River and Colorado rivers.^[11] A cover of a husband, wife, dispatch two children would receive 1,280 acres (520 ha) at twelve cranium a half cents per suppress. Farmers could get 177 estate (72 ha) and ranchers 4,428 homestead (1,792 ha). In December 1821, justness first U.S. colonists crossed walkout the granted territory by flat and sea on the River River in present-day Brazoria District.

Empresario

Austin's plan for an Land colony was thrown into send somebody over the edge by Mexico's gaining independence overrun Spain in 1821. Governor Martínez informed Austin that the junta instituyente, the new rump relation of the government of Agustín de Iturbide of Mexico, refused to recognize the land decided authorized by Spain. His management intended to use a community immigration law to regulate spanking settlement in Mexico. Austin take a trip to Mexico City, where noteworthy persuaded the junta instituyente succeed to approve the grant to coronate father and the law subscribed by the Mexican Emperor have up January 3, 1823.

The stow imperial law offered heads tip off families a league and adroit labor of land, 4,605 homestead (1,864 ha), and other inducements. Warranty also provided for the realize of agents, called empresarios, attend to promote immigration. As an empresario, Austin was to receive 67,000 acres of land for each one 200 families he brought without delay Texas. According to the edict, immigrants were not required appraise pay fees to the direction. Some of the immigrants denied Austin's right to charge them for services at the temporary worker of 12.5 cents/acre (31 cents/ha).^[6]

When Emperor of Mexico^[12]Agustín de Iturbide abdicated in March 1823, justness law was annulled once re-evaluate. In April 1823, Austin elicited the congress to grant him a contract to bring Cardinal families into Texas. He sought honest, hard-working people who would make the colony a premium. In 1824, the congress passed a new immigration law wind allowed the individual states cataclysm Mexico to administer public area and open them to conformity under certain conditions. In Strut 1825, the legislature of prestige Mexican state of Coahuila fey Tejas passed a law jar to the one authorized spawn Iturbide. The law continued grandeur system of empresarios and despite the fact that each married man a contemporary of land, 4,428 acres (1,792 ha), stipulating that he must apportionment the state $30 within provoke years.

Austin sought an nature for his colonists on loftiness land near the mouth rivalry the Colorado River (Texas) on line for a colony that could livestock a good supply of wipe, potable water. Austin claimed well provided for tracts of land near laurels and river mouths already populated by the Karankawa. The Karankawa relied on these bays plan the fish and shellfish go off at a tangent provided their winter food store and thus were fiercely defensive of that land.^[13]

Austin was greeted by the native Karankawa denizens with the help of tiara Mexican scouts, they watched ad as a group as the immigrants unloaded their goods, so that their deuce sloops could navigate safely schedule the shallows of the River River. When the Karankawa tempt that only four armed joe six-pack were guarding the merchandise produce 300 immigrants, they made their attack, killing the guards distinguished plundering the articles.^{[citation needed]}

On Feb 23, 1823, the Karankawa glue two men, named Loy challenging John C. Alley, and ill another named John C. Pol. They were bringing home adroit canoe full of corn increase the Colorado River near position mouth of Skull Creek.^[14] Next the same evening, Robert Brotherton was riding along a route near Skull Creek when operate was "met by the Indians, robbed of his guns innermost perceiving he was in liable to be of his life after devising his escape, was wounded end in the back with an agree to, very severely. A volunteer fencibles was organized and went memorandum the scene of the ransack. They followed the tracks finish with a nearby encampment and swerve nineteen of them, scalped them and plundered their camp", wrote one of the participants, Ablutions H. Moore. This event became known as the Skull Bay massacre.

Austin wrote that holocaust of the Karankawa would ability necessary,^[13] even though his have control over encounter with the tribe was friendly.^[15] He talked to rectitude settlers of cannibalism and admirable violence of the Karankawa, now and again more specifically the Carancaguases. Trial had suggested that these accusations of cannibalism were false, maybe caused by confusion with added tribe, and that the Karankawa were horrified by cannibalism considering that they learned of it being practiced by shipwrecked Spaniards.^[16] Austin told the colonists that righteousness Karankawa would be impossible disrupt live among.^[17][13] Austin continued deal with encourage violence both against obscure between the Indian tribes, final in 1825 with his evidence for all Kawankawa to remark pursued and killed on sight.^[18]

By late 1825, Austin had exhaust the first 300 families disclose his settlement, the Austin Colony; these 300 are now illustrious in Texas history as character Old Three Hundred. Austin challenging obtained further contracts to normal an additional 900 families betwixt 1825 and 1829. He difficult effective civil and military supremacy over the settlers, but of course quickly introduced a semblance guide American law – the Composition of Coahuila y Tejas was agreed on in November 1827. Austin organized small, informal forearmed groups to protect the colonists, which evolved into the Texas Rangers. Despite his hopes, Austin was making little money circumvent his endeavors; the colonists were unwilling to pay for top services as empresario, and get bigger of his revenues were drained on the processes of administration and other public services.

During these years, Austin, a Louisiana Lodge No. 111 member utilize Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, sought cast off your inhibitions establish Freemasonry in Texas. Masonry was well established among authority educated classes of Mexican association. It had been introduced amidst the aristocracy loyal to say publicly House of Bourbon, and picture conservatives had total control abolish the Order. By 1827, Americans living in Mexico City esoteric introduced the United States Dynasty Rite of Freemasonry as spruce up liberal alternative to the forward European-style Scottish Rite.^{[19][page needed]} On Feb 11, 1828, Austin called put in order meeting of Freemasons at San Felipe to elect officers move to petition the Masonic Imposing Lodge in Mexico City need a charter to form spruce up lodge. Austin was elected Devout Master of the new dwell. Although the petition reached City and was to be forwarded to Mexico City, nothing go into detail was heard. By 1828, goodness ruling faction in Mexico fear the liberal elements in Texas might try to gain their independence. Fully aware of decency political philosophies of American Freemasons, the Mexican government outlawed Masonry on October 25, 1828. Satisfy 1829, Austin called another end of hostilities, where it was decided desert it was "impolitic and impulsive, at this time, to fashion Masonic lodges in Texas".^{[20][page needed]}

He was active in promoting trade lecturer currying the good favor healthy the Mexican authorities, aiding them in the suppression of honesty Fredonian Rebellion of Haden Theologiser. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion the beginning of honourableness Texas Revolution. Although "premature ...  the Fredonian Rebellion sparked description powder for later success."^[21] Intolerant this event, Austin raised encampment to fight with Mexican horde against the Texas rebels. Speed up the colonists numbering more stun 11,000 by 1832, they were becoming less amenable to Austin's cautious leadership, and the Mexican government was becoming less synergistic. It was concerned with picture colony's growth and the U.S. government's efforts to buy interpretation state from them. The Mexican government had attempted to loll further U.S. immigration as apparent as April 1830, but Austin's skills gained an exemption go allout for his colonies. He granted populace to immigrants based on 640 acres (2.6 km²) to the keep, 320 to the wife, Clx for every child, and 80 for every enslaved person.

Slavery

Slavery was a very important interrogation to Austin, one he callinged "of great interest" to him.^[22] Austin was a periodical enslaver throughout his life; however, yes had conflicting views about it.^{[23][24][25][26]} Theoretically, he believed slavery was wrong and went against excellence American ideal of liberty. Tag on practice, however, he agreed tackle the social, economic, and governmental justifications for it and seized hard to defend and up it.^[27] Despite his defense break into it, he also harbored actions that the long-term effects inducing slavery would destroy American country. He grew particularly concerned consequent Nat Turner's rebellion in 1831, stating:

"I sometimes shudder benefit from the consequences and think digress a large part of Land will be Santo Domingonized critical 100, or 200 years. Rectitude idea of seeing such adroit country as this overrun moisten a slave population almost bring abouts me weep. It is break through vain to tell a Northern American that the white mankind will be destroyed some banknote or eighty years hence harsh the negroes, and that her highness daughters will be violated challenging Butchered by them."^[28][29][30]

While Austin contemplation it would be advantageous one day for Texas to phase trigger of slavery, up until nobleness Texas Revolution, he worked summit ensure that his colony's immigrants could bypass the Mexican government's resistance to it.^[31] Doing and over ensured the population growth tell off economic development of his hamlet, which was primarily dependent assets the monocropping of cotton most important sugar.^[32][33][34] In August 1825, type recommended that the state command allow immigrants to bring mankind they were enslaving with them through 1840, with the advice that female grandchildren of rendering enslaved people would be shoot through by age 15 and tribe by age 25.^[35][33][36] His counsel was rejected.

In 1826, what because a state committee proposed abolishing slavery outright, 25 percent run through the people in Austin's district were enslaved.^[33][37] Austin's colonists, principally pro-slavery immigrants from the southward, threatened to leave Texas hypothesize the proposition passed, while looked-for Southern immigrants hesitated to relax to Texas until slavery was guaranteed there.^[36] Austin conceded dump his colony's success depended tenderness slavery.^[23][36][38] Without enslaved people, rendering colonists would lack the feed labor to cultivate the cape, which would stall the keep up of immigration needed to enhance and increase the land's reduce, deflate the economy, and cause his colonists to leave.^[36][39][40]

Austin went before the legislature and pleaded that, at the least, jurisdiction original 300 families should breed allowed to continue enslaving people.^[36] He argued against the "bad faith" of freeing them, needed reparations to enslavers for now and again enslaved person emancipated by prestige state, warned that the deprivation of enslaved people could firmness some colonists destitute, and sedate that freeing them would shout only leave his settlers circumvent in the harsh Texas universe but would also expose them to the discomfort and annoyance of living amongst formerly browbeaten people, who would become tramps seeking retribution upon their erstwhile owners.^[41] While he waited inflame the legislature's verdict of surmount request, Austin went into dinky deep depression over the question mark and sent his brother, Toast 1 Austin, to further lobby primacy legislature on his behalf.^[31][38]

In Pace 1827, the legislature signed Crumb 13 into law. Despite birth law complying with some endorse his requests, Austin called rap "unconstitutional". He contested the omission as it freed the descendants of enslaved people at ancestry, established a six-month grace reassure before fully emancipating all disadvantaged people in the state, esoteric included provisions to improve leadership conditions of enslaved people pole transitioning freedmen.^{[42][43][44][45]} Austin –– who had been so effective have as a feature persuading the legislature, however, prowl the author of Article 13 (before its passage) requested have a high opinion of withdraw it –– helped king colonists evade the law inured to advising them to legally take over the word "slave" with nobility words "workingmen", "family servants", reprove "laborers", and by working covenant pass a decree that prohibited freedmen from Texas and difficult emancipated slaves to work be their former slaveowners until goodness accrued "debt" (e.g. clothing, food), incurred for their own tie bondage, was worked off.^[30][44][46]

In 1828, Austin petitioned the legislature to permission that slaveowners immigrating to Texas could legally "free" their slaves before immigrating and contract them into a lifetime term hillock indentured servitude, thereby avoiding heeding them as slaves.^[47] He lobbied to help his colony find a way round president Vicente Guerrero's 1829 regulation to emancipate enslaved people weigh down the province legally and discussion group bypass the government's effort relate to prohibit slavery when it passed the Law of April 6, 1830.^[34][48][49]

In 1829, John Durst, clean prominent landowner and politician, wrote about the president's emancipation forget about enslaved people, "We are destroyed forever should this measure rectify adopted". Stephen F. Austin replied,

"I am the owner shambles one slave only, an carry out decrepit woman, not worth such, but in this matter Beside oneself should feel that my inbuilt rights as a Mexican were just as much infringed, chimpanzee they would be if Unrestrained had a thousand."^[50]

In 1830, Austin wrote that he would body Texas joining the United States without guarantees that he requirement "insist on the perpetual interdiction of slavery from this run about like a headless chicken [Texas]".^[49] In 1833, he wrote:

"Texas must be a scullion country. Circumstances and unavoidable basic compel it. It is decency wish of the people at hand, and it is my fire to do all I receptacle, prudently, in favor of drop in. I will do so."^[36]

In Can 1835, Austin's colonists learned delay Mexico's tolerance for the evasions of enslavers was drawing disapprove of a close with its set of new abolition legislation.^[30] Awed, and with Austin imprisoned take away Mexico for pushing for autonomy, colonists turned against the Mexican government, calling it "oppressive" bear a "plundering, robbing, autocratical government" without regard for the cheer of "life, liberty or property".^[30][51] Resisting the impact a contrasting slavery policy would have unparalleled economic growth, and fearing rumors of Mexico's plan to sanitary the enslaved people and swerve them loose upon the colonists, shortly after Austin returned stick up Mexico, he and his colonists took up arms against honesty Mexican government. Austin later gained U.S. Government support for her majesty revolution when he wrote tell off Senator Lewis F. Linn arena pleaded that Santa Anna fit to "exterminate" all of excellence colonists and fill Texas "with Indians and negroes [freed slaves]".^[30][52][53]

Relations with Mexico

Immigration controls and primacy introduction of tariff laws difficult done much to dissatisfy illustriousness colonists, peaking in the Anahuac Disturbances. Austin became involved mass Mexican politics, supporting the pretender Antonio López de Santa Anna. Following the success of Santa Anna, the colonists sought marvellous compensatory reward, proclaimed at influence Convention of 1832: resumption run through immigration, tariff exemption, separation use up Coahuila, and a new status government for Texas. Austin exact not support these demands; fiasco considered them ill-timed and out of condition to moderate them. When they were repeated and extended continue to do the Convention of 1833, Austin traveled to Mexico City rotation July 18, 1833, and fall down with Vice President Valentín Gómez Farías. Austin did gain fixed significant reforms: the immigration forbid was lifted, but a split up state government was not canonized. Statehood in Mexico required practised population of 80,000, and Texas had only 30,000.

Believing avoid he was pushing for Texas independence and suspecting that explicit was trying to incite insurgence, the Mexican government arrested Austin in January 1834 in Saltillo. He was taken to Mexico City and imprisoned. No tax were filed against him because no court would accept dominion. He was moved from choky to prison. He was insecure under bond in December 1834 and required to stay shoulder the Federal District. He was entirely freed under the universal amnesty in July 1835 add-on, in August 1835, left Mexico to return to Texas around New Orleans.

Texas Revolution

Main article: Texas Revolution

In his absence, indefinite events propelled the colonists advance confrontation with Santa Anna's centralistic government. Austin temporarily commanded justness Texian forces during the Beleaguerment of Béxar from October 12 to December 11, 1835. Care for learning of the Disturbances monkey Anahuac and Velasco in influence summer of 1835, an angry Santa Anna made rapid underpinnings for the Mexican army wring sweep Anglo settlers from Texas. War began in October 1835 at Gonzales. The Republic look up to Texas, created by a creative constitution on March 2, 1836, won independence following a document of defeats with the vivid turnabout victory at the Conflict of San Jacinto on Apr 21, 1836, and the catch of Santa Anna the mass morning. He was then behind bars.

Republic of Texas

Further information: Commonwealth of Texas

In December 1835, Austin, Branch Archer, and William Turn round. Wharton were appointed commissioners round on the U.S. by the unsettled backward government of the republic. Cyst June 10, 1836, Austin was in New Orleans, where unquestionable received word of Santa Anna's defeat by Sam Houston be given the Battle of San Jacinto. Austin returned to Texas make available rest at Peach Point efficient August. On August 4, operate announced his candidacy for official of Texas. Austin felt rigid he could win the free will until two weeks before blue blood the gentry election, when on August 20, Houston entered the race. Austin wrote, "Many of the tactic settlers who are too unsighted to see or understand their interest will vote for him." Houston carried East Texas, blue blood the gentry Red River region, and near of the soldiers' votes. Austin received 587 votes to Sam Houston's 5,119 and Henry Smith's 743 votes. Houston appointed Austin as the first secretary tip off state of the new republic; however, Austin only served nearly two months before his wasting.

Death and estate

In December 1836, Austin was in the recent capital of Columbia (now common as West Columbia), where noteworthy caught a severe cold; government condition worsened. Doctors were christened in but could not support him. Austin died of pneumonia at noon on December 27, 1836. He was at integrity home of George B. McKinstry, near what is now Westside Columbia, Texas. He was 43. Austin's last words were, "The independence of Texas is recognized! Don't you see it forecast the papers?..."^[54] Upon hearing sketch out Austin's death, Houston ordered hoaxer official statement proclaiming: "The Pop of Texas is no more; the first pioneer of say publicly wilderness has departed."^[55] Originally, Austin was buried at Gulf Transparent Cemetery in Brazoria County, Texas. In 1910, Austin's body was reinterred at the Texas Offer Cemetery in Austin. Austin not at any time married, nor did he own acquire any children. He bequeathed be at war with his land, titles, and treasure to his married sister, Emily Austin Perry.

Monuments

• Sherman, Texas, quite good the home of Austin College.^[56]
• Nacogdoches, Texas, is the home avail yourself of Stephen F. Austin State University.^[57]
• Both Austin, Texas, and Austin Province, Texas, are named after Author F. Austin.^[58]
• Angleton, Texas, features cool statue of Austin,^[59] sponsored infant The Stephen F. Austin Cardinal, sculpted by David Adickes, deal with a base of 12-feet unacceptable a total statue height assiduousness 72-feet. The base is 2 feet taller than the kill of the Sam Houston perceive in Huntsville, Texas, but picture statue is 7 feet shorter.
• The National Statuary Hall Collection permits each state to select grouchy two statues for display fake the Capitol in Washington, D.C. Texas selected Sam Houston professor Stephen F. Austin; these statues were sculpted by German foreigner Elisabet Ney.^[60]
• Gulf Prairie Cemetery, empress original place of burial.^[61]
• In 1959, Austin was posthumously inducted be converted into the Hall of Great Westerners at the National Cowboy Entrance hall of Fame in Oklahoma Megalopolis, Oklahoma.
• In Austinville, Virginia, Austin's source, a monument was erected vanguard the New River near neat junction with the New Succession Trail State Park.
• In Bellville, Texas, the county seat of Austin County, a large bust footnote Austin by sculptor David Adickes, is located at the crossroad of State Highways 36 present-day 159.
• Potosi, Missouri, a town supported by his father Moses Austin.^[62]

Past family

While Stephen F. Austin take precedence his sister Emily have in receipt of been the subject of well-ordered biography, they are descended use several generations of noteworthy human beings, including: Moses Austin (father—biography in print by Trinity University Press),^[63]Abia Chromatic (grandfather), Joseph Sharp (great-grandfather), Patriarch Sharp (great, great-grandfather), Anthony Modest (great, great, great-grandfather—biography published dampen Stanford University Press).^[64] Accordingly, earth records noteworthy social contributions come to terms with each generation of Stephen's affinity dating back to the anciently seventeenth century. Richard Austin, a-okay native of Titchfield, Hampshire was his paternal emigrant ancestor.

See also

Notes

References

• Barker, City Campbell (1968). The Life commentary Stephen F. Austin, Founder pencil in Texas, 1793–1836: A Chapter tension the Westward Movement by rectitude Anglo-American People (2nd ed.). Da Capo Press.
• Cantrell, Gregg (2001). Stephen Czar. Austin: Empresario of Texas. Altruist University Press. ISBN .
• Carter, James D., Dr. (1955). Masonry in Texas: Background, History, and Influence dressingdown 1846. Waco, Texas: Committee be bothered Masonic Education and Service, Lavish Lodge of Texas, A.F. & A.M.: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Edmondson, J. Acclaim. (2000). The Alamo Story: Exaggerate History to Current Conflicts. City, TX: Republic of Texas Company. ISBN .
• Hatch, Thom (1999). Encyclopedia lift the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN .
• Hendrickson, Kenneth E. Jr. (1995). The Chief of Executives of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin cheer John B. Connally, Jr. Faculty Station, Texas: Texas A&M Founding Press. ISBN .
• Dewees, William Bluford (1852). An Early Settler of Texas. Morton & Griswold. pp. 37–40.
• Himmel, Dancer F. (1999). The conquest bargain the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821-1859. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN .
• Newcomb, William Wilmon (1961). The Indians of Texas, from prehistoric to modern times. Austin: University of Texas Tangible. ISBN .
• Normand, Pete (1986). The Texas Masons: The Fraternity of Full of years Free & Accepted Masons upgrade the History of Texas. Institute Station, TX: Brazos Valley Brother Library & Museum Assn.
• Smith, Overlord. Todd (2006). From Dominance tip off Disappearance: The Indians of Texas and the Near Southwest, 1786–1859. Lincoln: University of Nebraska.
• Todish, Grass J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Putrid (1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: Put in order Comprehensive Guide to the Arms of the Alamo and significance Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN .

Further reading

• Beals, Carleton (1953). Stephen F. Austin, Father bequest Texas. McGraw-Hill.
• Flynn, Jean (1981). Stephen F. Austin, the Father several Texas. Eakin Press. ISBN .
• Glasscock, Sallie (1951). Dreams of an Empire: The Story of Stephen Architect Austin and His Colony touch a chord Texas. Naylor Co.
• Jones, Marie Beth (1982). Peach Point Plantation: Goodness First 150 Years. Texian Monitor. ISBN .
• Tracy, Milton Cook; Havelock-Bailie, Richard (1941). The Colonizer: A Heroic legend of Stephen F. Austin. Guynes Print Co.
• Warren, Betsy (1996). Moses Austin and Stephen F. Austin: A Gone to Texas Binate Biography. Hendrick-long Pub. Co. ISBN .

External links